Chapter 4 Syntax
1. Immediate Constituent Analysis (直接成分分析法)
Definition
It may be defined as: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. However, for the sake of convenience, in practice we usually stop at the level of word. The immediate constituent analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets or with a tree diagram.
直接成分分析法先把句子分析为直接成分---词组（或短语），再把这些直接成分依次切分，得到各自的直接成分，层层切分，直到最终成分为止。实际操作中，为了方便，通常切到词为止。直接成分分析法可以用括弧或树形图表示。
Advantages：
Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, ambiguities, if any, will be revealed. 通过IC分析法，句子的内在结构可以清晰地展示出来，如果有歧义，也会被揭示出来。
Problems
① At the beginning, some advocators insisted on binary divisions. Any construction, at any
level, will be cut into two parts. But this is not always possible.
开始的时候，一些提倡者坚持二元切分。任何结构体在任何层面都分为两个部分。但实际上并不总是如此。
② Constructions with discontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for tree diagrams in IC analysis. The most serious problem is that there are structural ambiguities which cannot be
revealed by IC analysis.
含有不连续成分的结构体会给IC分析法的树形图造成技术困难。 最严重的问题是有些结构的歧义不能用IC分析法来揭示和分析。
2. Deep structure &Surface structure (深层结构 &表层结构)
2.1 Deep structure (深层结构)
The deep structure is the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i. e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents.
深层结构是对一个结构体的句法属性的抽象描述，即不同成分之间的结构关系的潜在层面。
2.2 Surface structure（表层结构）
The surface structure is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive. 表层结构是结构体句法派生过程的最后阶段，与人们实际发送、接受的结构组织相符合。
3. The functional approach/ The Prague School
（功能学派/布拉格语言学派）
3.1 Functional sentence perspective (FSP)
The functional sentence perspective (FSP) is a type of linguistic analysis associated with the Prague School which describes how information is distributed in sentences. FSP deals particularly with the effect of the distribution of known information and new information in discourse. Theme:
The known information (known as theme), refers to information that is not known to the reader or listener.
主位指“已知的信息或至少在给定的语境中明确的，话语起点前的信息。”
Rheme:
The rheme refers to information that is new，it can be regarded as “what the speaker states about, or in regard to, the starting point of the utterance”.
(述位是指“说话者陈述的有关，或者涉及话语起点的内容。”)
FSP differs from the traditional grammatical analysis of sentences because the distribution between subject-predicate is not always the same as theme-rheme contrast. E.g.
(1) John
sat in the front seat predicate rheme
John.
subject
rheme Subject Theme (2) In the front seat sat Predicate Theme
(3) The man is running.
subject Theme Predicate rheme
John is the grammatical subject in both sentences, but theme in (1) and rheme in (2).
3.2. Communicative dynamism (CD) （交际动力）
By CD Firbas means the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.
（Firbas用交际动力表示“句子成分对交际发展所起作用的程度。”）
1) Ideational function (概念功能)
It is one of the functions of language，which means that language serves for the expression of
“content”: that is, through the speaker’s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness.
(语言的功能之一，指语言用来表达“内容”，即表达说话者的现实世界经验，包括其自我意识的内心世界。)
2) Interpersonal function(人际功能)
It is one of the functions of language, through which social groups are delimited, and individuals are identified and reinforced, since by enabling him to interact with others language also serves in the expression and development of his own personality.
(语言的功能之一，指通过这种功能人们被划分成社会群体，个人身份得到确认和加强，因为借助语言和其他人交往时，语言也使人的个性得到表达和发展。)
3) Textual function (语篇功能)
It is one of the functions of language which enables the speaker or writer to construct “text”, or connect passages of discourse that is situationally relevant; and enables them to distinguish a text from random set of sentences.
(语言的功能之一，指语言那种使说话者或作者有能力构造“语篇”或者跟语境相关的连续话语并且使他们有能力把语篇和随意的句子组合区分开来的能力。)
4. Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relations
4.1 Syntagmatic relation（组合关系）
Syntagmatic relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present, such as the relation between weather and the others in the following sentence: If the weather is nice, we’ll go out.
（组合关系是指一个词项和同一序列中的其他词项之间的关系或者说是共现的所有成分之
间的关系。）
4.2 Paradigmatic relation(聚合关系)
Paradigmatic (a.k.a. vertical / choice) relation is a relation between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.
（聚合关系或称联想关系，是指在结构的某个位置彼此可以互相替换的成分之间的关系。）
5. Endocentric and exocentric constructions(向心结构&离心结构)
5.1 Endocentric construction （向心结构）
It is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. Typical endocentric constructions are noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases. They may be further divided into two subtypes: subordinate and coordinate constructions.
(向心结构包含一个作为整体结构的中心或核心的成分，典型的向心结构包括名词短语、动词短语和形容词短语。可以从结构上分为两类：主从结构和并列结构.)
Those, in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constructions dependent, are subordinate constructions.
(凡是结构中只有一个支配性主词，其他成分是该主词的修饰成分，这样的结构成为主从向心结构)
In the coordinate construction, there are more than one head, e.g. boys and girls, in which the two content constituents, boys and girls, are of equal syntactic status, and no one is dependent on the other.
(凡是结构中有一个以上句法地位相等的主词，互不依靠，这样的结构称为并列向心结构。)
5.2 Exocentric construction (离心结构)
The exocentric construction is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. There is no noticeable center or head in it. Typical exocentric constructions are prepositional phrases, subordinate clauses, English basic sentences, and the verb plus object constructions.
(离心结构是指一个其成分功能不等于它的任何一个成分，没有明显的主词或中心词的结构。)
Chapter 4 Syntax
1. Immediate Constituent Analysis (直接成分分析法)
Definition
It may be defined as: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. However, for the sake of convenience, in practice we usually stop at the level of word. The immediate constituent analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets or with a tree diagram.
直接成分分析法先把句子分析为直接成分---词组（或短语），再把这些直接成分依次切分，得到各自的直接成分，层层切分，直到最终成分为止。实际操作中，为了方便，通常切到词为止。直接成分分析法可以用括弧或树形图表示。
Advantages：
Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, ambiguities, if any, will be revealed. 通过IC分析法，句子的内在结构可以清晰地展示出来，如果有歧义，也会被揭示出来。
Problems
① At the beginning, some advocators insisted on binary divisions. Any construction, at any
level, will be cut into two parts. But this is not always possible.
开始的时候，一些提倡者坚持二元切分。任何结构体在任何层面都分为两个部分。但实际上并不总是如此。
② Constructions with discontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for tree diagrams in IC analysis. The most serious problem is that there are structural ambiguities which cannot be
revealed by IC analysis.
含有不连续成分的结构体会给IC分析法的树形图造成技术困难。 最严重的问题是有些结构的歧义不能用IC分析法来揭示和分析。
2. Deep structure &Surface structure (深层结构 &表层结构)
2.1 Deep structure (深层结构)
The deep structure is the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i. e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents.
深层结构是对一个结构体的句法属性的抽象描述，即不同成分之间的结构关系的潜在层面。
2.2 Surface structure（表层结构）
The surface structure is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive. 表层结构是结构体句法派生过程的最后阶段，与人们实际发送、接受的结构组织相符合。
3. The functional approach/ The Prague School
（功能学派/布拉格语言学派）
3.1 Functional sentence perspective (FSP)
The functional sentence perspective (FSP) is a type of linguistic analysis associated with the Prague School which describes how information is distributed in sentences. FSP deals particularly with the effect of the distribution of known information and new information in discourse. Theme:
The known information (known as theme), refers to information that is not known to the reader or listener.
主位指“已知的信息或至少在给定的语境中明确的，话语起点前的信息。”
Rheme:
The rheme refers to information that is new，it can be regarded as “what the speaker states about, or in regard to, the starting point of the utterance”.
(述位是指“说话者陈述的有关，或者涉及话语起点的内容。”)
FSP differs from the traditional grammatical analysis of sentences because the distribution between subject-predicate is not always the same as theme-rheme contrast. E.g.
(1) John
sat in the front seat predicate rheme
John.
subject
rheme Subject Theme (2) In the front seat sat Predicate Theme
(3) The man is running.
subject Theme Predicate rheme
John is the grammatical subject in both sentences, but theme in (1) and rheme in (2).
3.2. Communicative dynamism (CD) （交际动力）
By CD Firbas means the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.
（Firbas用交际动力表示“句子成分对交际发展所起作用的程度。”）
1) Ideational function (概念功能)
It is one of the functions of language，which means that language serves for the expression of
“content”: that is, through the speaker’s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness.
(语言的功能之一，指语言用来表达“内容”，即表达说话者的现实世界经验，包括其自我意识的内心世界。)
2) Interpersonal function(人际功能)
It is one of the functions of language, through which social groups are delimited, and individuals are identified and reinforced, since by enabling him to interact with others language also serves in the expression and development of his own personality.
(语言的功能之一，指通过这种功能人们被划分成社会群体，个人身份得到确认和加强，因为借助语言和其他人交往时，语言也使人的个性得到表达和发展。)
3) Textual function (语篇功能)
It is one of the functions of language which enables the speaker or writer to construct “text”, or connect passages of discourse that is situationally relevant; and enables them to distinguish a text from random set of sentences.
(语言的功能之一，指语言那种使说话者或作者有能力构造“语篇”或者跟语境相关的连续话语并且使他们有能力把语篇和随意的句子组合区分开来的能力。)
4. Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relations
4.1 Syntagmatic relation（组合关系）
Syntagmatic relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present, such as the relation between weather and the others in the following sentence: If the weather is nice, we’ll go out.
（组合关系是指一个词项和同一序列中的其他词项之间的关系或者说是共现的所有成分之
间的关系。）
4.2 Paradigmatic relation(聚合关系)
Paradigmatic (a.k.a. vertical / choice) relation is a relation between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.
（聚合关系或称联想关系，是指在结构的某个位置彼此可以互相替换的成分之间的关系。）
5. Endocentric and exocentric constructions(向心结构&离心结构)
5.1 Endocentric construction （向心结构）
It is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. Typical endocentric constructions are noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases. They may be further divided into two subtypes: subordinate and coordinate constructions.
(向心结构包含一个作为整体结构的中心或核心的成分，典型的向心结构包括名词短语、动词短语和形容词短语。可以从结构上分为两类：主从结构和并列结构.)
Those, in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constructions dependent, are subordinate constructions.
(凡是结构中只有一个支配性主词，其他成分是该主词的修饰成分，这样的结构成为主从向心结构)
In the coordinate construction, there are more than one head, e.g. boys and girls, in which the two content constituents, boys and girls, are of equal syntactic status, and no one is dependent on the other.
(凡是结构中有一个以上句法地位相等的主词，互不依靠，这样的结构称为并列向心结构。)
5.2 Exocentric construction (离心结构)
The exocentric construction is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. There is no noticeable center or head in it. Typical exocentric constructions are prepositional phrases, subordinate clauses, English basic sentences, and the verb plus object constructions.
(离心结构是指一个其成分功能不等于它的任何一个成分，没有明显的主词或中心词的结构。)