Design features are features that define out human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity displacement, cultural transmission, etc. Arbitrariness means forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表达的意义没有天然的联系。
eg: we cannot explain why a book is called a book.
1.Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning 2.arbitrariness at the syntactic level 句法层面上的任意性syntax refers to the ways that sentences are constructed according to the grammar of arrangement.
3.arbitrariness and convention 任意性和规约性 Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious. 任意性使语言有潜在的创造力，而规约性又使学习语言变得辛苦。
Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. A syllable音节 is the smallest unit that is normally spoken by itself.
Scores of syllables become the carriers of hundreds of meaningful segments of words that are called morpheme语素. Creativity means by using it we can create new meanings and endless sentences.
Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication. Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。
Phonetics 语音学 studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is, how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc. Phonology 音系学 studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. A phoneme音位 is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. English has approximately forty phonemes.
Morphology 形态学 is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.
Pragmatics 语用学 is the study of meaning in context. it deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which many social contexts of language performances can influence interpretation. In other words, pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is internally structured.语用学的研究对象是reference, force, effect, and cooperative principles。
Descriptive 描写式 is a command while prescriptive 规定式 is a statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.
A synchronic 共时 description takes a fixed instant as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. Synchrony is a fiction, for language changes as the minutes pass and grammar-writing is a lengthy enterprise.
Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole.语言和言语
Consonants 辅音 are produced “by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing, audible friction”. A vowel原因 is produced without such “stricture ” so that “air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose ” the distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.
The meaner of articulation发音方式: stop 塞音p b t d k g, nasal鼻音 m n η, bilabial双唇音p b m
Allophones 音位变体
The systematic study of morpheme is a branch of linguistics called morphology.形态学 it studies the internal structures and rules of morphemes by which words are formed.
Types of morphemes: free morpheme and bound morpheme粘着语素
Root, affix and stem 词根、词缀和词干 a root is the base form of a word that cannot befurther analyzed without destroying its meaning. Affixes include prefix, suffix and infix. A root may also be free or bound. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.
Inflectional affix and derivational affix屈折词缀和派生词缀
Distinction: first, Inflectional affixes produce different forms of a single lexical item while derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word while derivational affixes might. Third, that whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on other factors within the phrase or sentence at stake, however derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions. Most inflectional affixes are suffixes.
Word class
Particles 助词 Auxiliaries 助动词
Inflection indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finitenss, aspect and case; the adding of inflectional affixes will not change the grammatical class of the stems.
Derivation, in its restricted sense, refers to the process of how new words are formed, including derivational type and compositional type. Derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.
Compound refers to those words that consist of more than on lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a singlenew word, in compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes.
Lexical change includes invention, blending, abbreviation, acronym, back-formation逆构词法 and analogical creation类推造字and borrowing, class shift.
Grammatical construction or construct can be used to mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains. On the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in a language its external and internal properties.
Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head. Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the head. Exocentric refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that it, there is no definable “centre ” or “head ” inside the group. It includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate construction, and connective construction.
Category refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, and refers to the defining properties of there general units. Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. gender displays such contrasts as “masculine, feminine, neuter”, “animate, inanimate”, etc.
The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory. The distinction between “sense ” and “reference ” is comparable to that between “connotation ” and “denotation ”. The former refers to the abstract properties of an entity, while the latter refers to the concrete entities having there properties.
Synonymy and {antonymy gradable, complementary and converse antonymy}
Hyponymy 上下义关系 the upper term in this sense relation is called super-ordinate, and the lower terms is called hyponyms.
Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation, etc. construal operations are conceptualizing processes used in language process by human beings. That is, construal operations are the underlying psychological processes and resources employed in the interpretation of linguistic expressions.
Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. Categorization is a major ingredient in the creation of human knowledge, and it allows us to relate present experience to past ones.
Image schemas is a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience.
Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. Ontological metaphor means that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc, as entities and substances. Structural metaphors imply how one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another. Orientational metaphor give a concept a spatial orientation
Design features are features that define out human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity displacement, cultural transmission, etc. Arbitrariness means forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表达的意义没有天然的联系。
eg: we cannot explain why a book is called a book.
1.Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning 2.arbitrariness at the syntactic level 句法层面上的任意性syntax refers to the ways that sentences are constructed according to the grammar of arrangement.
3.arbitrariness and convention 任意性和规约性 Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious. 任意性使语言有潜在的创造力，而规约性又使学习语言变得辛苦。
Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. A syllable音节 is the smallest unit that is normally spoken by itself.
Scores of syllables become the carriers of hundreds of meaningful segments of words that are called morpheme语素. Creativity means by using it we can create new meanings and endless sentences.
Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication. Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。
Phonetics 语音学 studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is, how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc. Phonology 音系学 studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. A phoneme音位 is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. English has approximately forty phonemes.
Morphology 形态学 is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.
Pragmatics 语用学 is the study of meaning in context. it deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which many social contexts of language performances can influence interpretation. In other words, pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is internally structured.语用学的研究对象是reference, force, effect, and cooperative principles。
Descriptive 描写式 is a command while prescriptive 规定式 is a statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.
A synchronic 共时 description takes a fixed instant as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. Synchrony is a fiction, for language changes as the minutes pass and grammar-writing is a lengthy enterprise.
Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole.语言和言语
Consonants 辅音 are produced “by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing, audible friction”. A vowel原因 is produced without such “stricture ” so that “air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose ” the distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.
The meaner of articulation发音方式: stop 塞音p b t d k g, nasal鼻音 m n η, bilabial双唇音p b m
Allophones 音位变体
The systematic study of morpheme is a branch of linguistics called morphology.形态学 it studies the internal structures and rules of morphemes by which words are formed.
Types of morphemes: free morpheme and bound morpheme粘着语素
Root, affix and stem 词根、词缀和词干 a root is the base form of a word that cannot befurther analyzed without destroying its meaning. Affixes include prefix, suffix and infix. A root may also be free or bound. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.
Inflectional affix and derivational affix屈折词缀和派生词缀
Distinction: first, Inflectional affixes produce different forms of a single lexical item while derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word while derivational affixes might. Third, that whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on other factors within the phrase or sentence at stake, however derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions. Most inflectional affixes are suffixes.
Word class
Particles 助词 Auxiliaries 助动词
Inflection indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finitenss, aspect and case; the adding of inflectional affixes will not change the grammatical class of the stems.
Derivation, in its restricted sense, refers to the process of how new words are formed, including derivational type and compositional type. Derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.
Compound refers to those words that consist of more than on lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a singlenew word, in compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes.
Lexical change includes invention, blending, abbreviation, acronym, back-formation逆构词法 and analogical creation类推造字and borrowing, class shift.
Grammatical construction or construct can be used to mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains. On the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in a language its external and internal properties.
Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head. Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the head. Exocentric refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that it, there is no definable “centre ” or “head ” inside the group. It includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate construction, and connective construction.
Category refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, and refers to the defining properties of there general units. Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. gender displays such contrasts as “masculine, feminine, neuter”, “animate, inanimate”, etc.
The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory. The distinction between “sense ” and “reference ” is comparable to that between “connotation ” and “denotation ”. The former refers to the abstract properties of an entity, while the latter refers to the concrete entities having there properties.
Synonymy and {antonymy gradable, complementary and converse antonymy}
Hyponymy 上下义关系 the upper term in this sense relation is called super-ordinate, and the lower terms is called hyponyms.
Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation, etc. construal operations are conceptualizing processes used in language process by human beings. That is, construal operations are the underlying psychological processes and resources employed in the interpretation of linguistic expressions.
Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. Categorization is a major ingredient in the creation of human knowledge, and it allows us to relate present experience to past ones.
Image schemas is a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience.
Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. Ontological metaphor means that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc, as entities and substances. Structural metaphors imply how one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another. Orientational metaphor give a concept a spatial orientation